Learning & Memory

1. Learning is best defined as:
(A) A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
(B) Temporary reflex activity
(C) Genetic programming only
(D) Random responses

2. Memory is:
(A) The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information
(B) The automatic response to stimuli
(C) A reflex action
(D) Unrelated to learning

3. Classical conditioning was first studied by:
(A) Ivan Pavlov
(B) B.F. Skinner
(C) John Watson
(D) Albert Bandura

4. In Pavlov’s experiments, the bell acted as a:
(A) Conditioned stimulus (CS)
(B) Unconditioned stimulus (US)
(C) Conditioned response (CR)
(D) Unconditioned response (UR)

5. Operant conditioning focuses on:
(A) Consequences of behavior (reinforcement and punishment)
(B) Automatic reflexes
(C) Observational learning only
(D) Memory recall

6. The law of effect was proposed by:
(A) Edward Thorndike
(B) Ivan Pavlov
(C) John Watson
(D) William James

7. Positive reinforcement involves:
(A) Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior
(B) Removing an aversive stimulus
(C) Adding an unpleasant consequence
(D) Ignoring a behavior

8. Negative reinforcement is:
(A) Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior
(B) Punishing a behavior
(C) Presenting a negative consequence
(D) Ignoring a response

9. Punishment differs from reinforcement because:
(A) It decreases behavior
(B) It increases behavior
(C) It strengthens conditioning
(D) It encodes memory

10. Schedules of reinforcement include:
(A) Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval
(B) Positive, negative, neutral
(C) Encoding, storage, retrieval
(D) Reflex, automatic, conscious

11. The most resistant schedule to extinction is:
(A) Variable ratio
(B) Fixed ratio
(C) Fixed interval
(D) Continuous reinforcement

12. Observational learning emphasizes:
(A) Learning by watching others
(B) Direct reinforcement only
(C) Genetic predisposition
(D) Reflexive behavior

13. Observational learning was studied by:
(A) Albert Bandura
(B) Ivan Pavlov
(C) B.F. Skinner
(D) Noam Chomsky

14. Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment demonstrated:
(A) Children imitate aggressive behavior
(B) Reflexes dominate learning
(C) Conditioning is unrelated to behavior
(D) Reinforcement is unnecessary

15. Encoding in memory refers to:
(A) Transforming information into a form for storage
(B) Retrieving information
(C) Keeping data permanently
(D) Forgetting

16. Storage in memory means:
(A) Maintaining information over time
(B) Translating sensory input
(C) Conscious recall
(D) Automatic response

17. Retrieval refers to:
(A) Accessing stored information when needed
(B) Encoding sensory input
(C) Forgetting
(D) Blocking memory

18. Sensory memory duration is typically:
(A) A few seconds or less
(B) Several minutes
(C) Hours
(D) Permanent

19. Iconic memory stores:
(A) Visual information briefly
(B) Auditory information
(C) Touch sensations
(D) Long-term knowledge

20. Echoic memory refers to:
(A) Auditory sensory memory
(B) Visual sensory memory
(C) Tactile memory
(D) Procedural recall

21. Short-term memory typically holds about:
(A) 7 ± 2 items
(B) Unlimited information
(C) 20 items only
(D) 2 ± 1 items

22. Working memory is primarily associated with:
(A) Active manipulation of information
(B) Permanent storage
(C) Automatic reflexes
(D) Emotional conditioning

23. Long-term memory is:
(A) Relatively permanent and limitless storage
(B) Limited to seconds
(C) Short-lived reflexes
(D) Always unconscious

24. Explicit memory is also called:
(A) Declarative memory
(B) Procedural memory
(C) Implicit memory
(D) Reflexive memory

25. Episodic memory stores:
(A) Personal experiences and events
(B) Facts and knowledge
(C) Motor skills
(D) Sensory reflexes

26. Semantic memory involves:
(A) General knowledge and facts
(B) Reflexes only
(C) Motor skills
(D) Emotional conditioning

27. Implicit memory is:
(A) Unconscious memory like skills and habits
(B) Conscious recall of facts
(C) Episodic experiences
(D) Short-term rehearsal

28. Procedural memory stores:
(A) Skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike)
(B) General knowledge
(C) Episodic details
(D) Emotional triggers

29. The hippocampus plays a critical role in:
(A) Formation of new memories
(B) Reflex actions
(C) Sensory transduction
(D) Motor coordination

30. The amygdala is strongly involved in:
(A) Emotional memory
(B) Reflexes
(C) Procedural learning
(D) Semantic memory

31. Long-term potentiation (LTP) is:
(A) Strengthening of synapses linked to learning and memory
(B) Loss of memory pathways
(C) Automatic forgetting
(D) Reflex adaptation

32. Chunking is a memory strategy that:
(A) Groups information into meaningful units
(B) Erases irrelevant details
(C) Replaces long-term memory
(D) Focuses on reflexes

33. The primacy effect in memory refers to:
(A) Better recall of items at the beginning of a list
(B) Better recall of items at the end of a list
(C) Forgetting middle items
(D) Forgetting all items

34. The recency effect refers to:
(A) Better recall of items at the end of a list
(B) Remembering items at the start
(C) Forgetting all items
(D) Long-term recall only

35. The serial position effect combines:
(A) Primacy and recency effects
(B) Explicit and implicit memory
(C) Encoding and retrieval
(D) Reflex and conscious recall

36. Forgetting often occurs because of:
(A) Encoding failure, decay, or interference
(B) Perfect recall mechanisms
(C) Reflex blocking
(D) Automatic rehearsal

37. Proactive interference occurs when:
(A) Old information interferes with new learning
(B) New information blocks old memories
(C) Memory is completely lost
(D) Reflexes dominate recall

38. Retroactive interference happens when:
(A) New information disrupts recall of old information
(B) Old knowledge blocks new learning
(C) Reflexes override memory
(D) Memory is stored permanently

39. Retrieval cues help by:
(A) Triggering access to stored memories
(B) Erasing memory traces
(C) Replacing reflexes
(D) Blocking storage

40. Context-dependent memory means:
(A) Recall is better in the same environment where learning occurred
(B) Memory is independent of context
(C) Reflexes dominate recall
(D) Retrieval cues are irrelevant

41. State-dependent memory suggests:
(A) Recall improves when internal states match learning conditions
(B) Recall is unrelated to emotions
(C) Only external context matters
(D) Memory is blocked by mood

42. Flashbulb memories are:
(A) Vivid, emotionally intense memories
(B) Reflexive responses
(C) Procedural learning
(D) Always accurate

43. Amnesia is:
(A) Partial or total loss of memory
(B) Enhancement of recall
(C) Procedural skill memory
(D) Reflex loss

44. Anterograde amnesia involves:
(A) Inability to form new memories
(B) Loss of old memories
(C) Forgetting procedural skills
(D) Memory for emotions only

45. Retrograde amnesia is:
(A) Loss of pre-existing memories
(B) Failure to form new ones
(C) Reflex loss
(D) Semantic knowledge decline only

46. Relearning shows that:
(A) Previously learned information is acquired more quickly the second time
(B) Old knowledge cannot be recovered
(C) Reflexes interfere with recall
(D) Forgetting is absolute

47. Constructive memory means:
(A) Memories are influenced by expectations and biases
(B) All memories are exact copies
(C) Reflexes shape memory
(D) Long-term memory is immune to distortion

48. The misinformation effect shows:
(A) Memory can be altered by misleading information
(B) Recall is always accurate
(C) Procedural skills never change
(D) Encoding is unaffected by context

49. Memory consolidation primarily occurs during:
(A) Sleep
(B) Reflex activity
(C) Automatic responses
(D) Divided attention

50. Ultimately, learning and memory together allow:
(A) Adaptation, knowledge retention, and skill acquisition
(B) Reflex-only behavior
(C) Elimination of perception
(D) Automatic forgetting